Reasonable ability on rock comes first in pro­gressive schooling in the art of climbing in rugged terrain. Technique is easier to acquire on rock than on ice because rock is more comfortable to work on, requires little equip­ment, is far more abundant, and demands less judgment. Rock-climbing does not make a mountaineer, any more than does skiing, but it is a substantial start.

Ski mountaineers will be grounded while applying ad­vanced climbing technique. Difficult summits or passes are rarely accessible to a man on skis. At best, it is recom­mended that the ski mountaineer not try to climb any but short roped pitches, on rock or ice, if he must carry or drag his skis.

Training

A rock-climber can't afford such peril as that to which the unskilled skier—speeding down, happily out of con­trol without knowing it—subjects himself if he tries the Nosedive. On rock, a subjective danger is more serious, for if there should be snow for a climber to fall on when he is out of control, it is often too far below. His safety, then, lies in controlled climbing, an ability derived in turn from progressive study of what his body is able to do. Once he has learned his limitations, his further safety lies in knowing how to correct the mistake of going beyond the limit of his ability.

Control can be learned on easy ridges and rocks. With no risk, a skier can assay his coordination and develop his ability by climbing at the base of a cliff, on progres­sively higher angles and tinier holds, where he is never so far above a landing strip that he cannot safely jump if something happens to his controls. Competition afforded by a follow-the-leader process will speed his early progress and that of his friends. Without increasing his exposure to difficulty he can learn the function of the rope, carabiner, piton, and footgear. Finally, and still without exposing himself to great height until he is ready, he can learn how his control and his climbing aids are combined to pro­vide corrective measures and to build a team.

While learning to control himself and his rope the stu­dent will raise the limits of his agility, strength, and en­durance. Agility will enable him to use more efficiently the strength he builds. The actual exercise will ease his acclimatization to high altitude. When his muscles and vital organs are in tone, and he has finally become smart enough to hoard his fund of energy, spending it only when necessary, he will have endurance. It is endurance that gets mountaineers up big mountains, endurance so dis­tinct from the flash energy used in downhill racing or football that it has been said that the ideal age for those who would attempt to climb Mount Everest is 25 to 35. Younger men spurt too much.

Climbing Control

On steep slopes the climber uses a combination: the bal­anced movement of a tightrope walker and the unbalanced climbing of a man ascending a tree or ladder. The climber must travel with his weight in poise over his feet or just ahead of them as he moves. His feet, not his hands, carry his weight, except on the steepest cliffs. His hands are for balance. Feet will not hold well when the climber leans in toward the rock. With his body in balance and his eyes leading the way, the climber moves in a rhythmic slow motion. He uses three points of support (two feet and one hand, for example, but never knee, elbow, and seat) when­ever possible, and prefers handholds that are waist- to shoulder-high. He relaxes, because tensed muscles tire quickly; when he rests, it is with his arms low, where circu­lation is not impaired. He uses small intermediate holds rather than stretching and clinging between widely sepa­rated big holds. He avoids the spread-eagle position, in which a man stretches so far he can hardly let go. He climbs sidewise to the rock where he can, rather than hug it too closely. In descents he faces out where the going is easy, sidewise where it is hard, and faces in where it is difficult, looping his rope momentarily over rock points that can serve as intermediate belays; he uses the lowest possible handholds, and never jumps down.

Types of holds.— (1) Pull holds are those that are pulled down or out upon and are the easiest holds to use. They are also the most likely to break out.

1. Push holds are pushed down upon, help the climber keep his arms desirably low, rarely break out, but are more difficult to hold to in case of slip. A push hold is often used to advantage in combination with a pull hold.
   
   
2. Friction holds are those dependent solely on the fric­tion of hands or feet against a smooth surface. They are difficult to use because they give a feeling of insecurity, which the climber tends to try to correct by leaning closer to the rock, thereby only increasing his insecurity. They often serve well as intermediate holds, some of which will give needed support while the climber moves over them, but would not hold him were he to stop.
   
   
3. Cross-pressure holds do not exist as useful single holds, but must be used in combinations by exertion of opposing pressure between hands, arms, and legs. There are several types: (a) The pinch hold—the pinching of a protruding part between the fingers, (b) Pressing outward or pulling inward with the arms, (c) The lie-back—a lying back to one side of an offset crack, with the hands pulling and the feet pushing against the offset side, (d) Inverted pull or push holds, sometimes called underholds—permit­ting opposing pressure between hands and feet, (e) Chim­ney climbing—exertion of cross pressure between the back and the feet or hands or knees.
   
   
4. Footholds will usually be the same as handholds, sooner or later, depending upon which way the man is climbing, and are normally used as push holds. A Bramani or sneaker rubber sole will hold on slabs up to about 45°. On such steep slopes the body should be kept vertical, or should lean out, with use being made of small irregularities in the slope to aid friction. Footholds less than half an inch wide can suffice for intermediate holds, even when they slope out.
   
   
5. A shoulder stand will overcome a short, holdless pitch. The top man should decide where and when he is going before, not after, he is standing on the somewhat sensitive tissue padding the low man's shoulder.

Use of holds.—A hold need not be large to be good, nor need it be solid, so long as the pressure is in the direction that holds it to the mountain. Experienced climbers can use holds which are scarcely seen. The climber must roll over his holds, not try to skip or jump from one to another. It is, however, often desirable in traverses to use the hop step, in which the climber changes feet on a small hold, replacing his outside foot with his inside foot so that he may move sideways more easily. A slight upward hop, fol­lowed by precise footwork, accomplishes this useful step.

Margin of safety.—A margin of safety is the protective buffer a climber keeps between what he knows to be the limit of his ability and what he actually tries to climb. He bases his margin of safety on experience gained with little or no risk in training, where he learns to calculate his ability. Close to the ground or tied to a rope belayed by a trained man above, he climbs on progressively harder pitches until he reaches the limit of his ability—and falls. When climbing thereafter, exposed, he leaves a margin, which can become smaller as he learns to calculate better. This margin should be calculated not only for the pitch immediately ahead, but also for the entire climb. The climber should plan his route and movement so far ahead as never to find himself in difficulties beyond his ability.

Climbing Aids

Rope.—Much climbing in ski mountaineering may be free climbing; that is, without rope. However, on some steep unbroken cliffs, where exposure is great, the rope is necessary in party climbing. When rope is needed it is the climber's lifeline, and it should be cared for accordingly. When not in use, the rope should always be coiled in an approved manner. It should never be stepped on. For long carries, it may be placed over the neck and one shoulder in a diagonal chest carry, or twisted into a figure-eight and folded over in the pack. The climber cannot always know that the rope he is to use has been properly cared for. If being put to any demanding use, rope should be new or nearly new, resilient, and free from serious cuts or abra­sions. Serious cuts should be finished with a knife at once; a mountaineering rope is never spliced.

Knots.— (1) The bowline is used for either end man on a rope. It is one of the easiest knots to untie after it has held a heavy load.

1. The bowline on a coil is used to take up extra rope around the climber's body, to relieve strain around the waist in tension climbing, and is used by the faller in practice belaying.
   
   
2. The butterfly knot is used in tying men in to the middle of a rope. This knot reduces the strength of the rope less than other knots.
   
   
3. The sheet bend is used in tying two ropes together.
   
   
4. The clove hitch is thrown around a pole or ice ax to provide a nonsliding anchor.
   
   
5. The Prusik knot will hold under stress, and slide when the stress is removed. It may be tied with a loop or on a bight. Its ratchet effect has many uses.

Placing of pitons.—Pitons are placed to reinforce the climber's judgment. If well placed (see fig. 3) they will limit his fall to twice the distance he is above the piton plus the amount of slack the belayer lets run. In placing pitons the climber should:

1. Study the rock to see that driving of a piton will not weaken it. Test rock for soundness by tapping with ham­mer. Select a crack that is wide enough to take one-third to one-half the piton shaft before hammering. Select the right piton—one that the rock will support best and that the snap-link can be hooked into after the piton is driven.
   
   
2. Drive the piton. While driving watch the rock to see that it is not being weakened by further cracking. Watch the piton to see that it goes in smoothly and to notice if the point hits a dead end. Listen to the piton's sound at each blow; good verticals and horizontals usually go in with a rising pitch; wafers and angles will have no noticeable pitch so long as the ring is swinging free. Drive the piton hard, until the head begins to change shape. The greater the resistance overcome in driving the piton, the firmer it will be. A well-driven piton will withstand a direct out­ward pull of 1,000-2,000 pounds.
   
   
3. Test the piton. Pull up several feet of slack, snap rope into carabiner, grasp doubled rope at least 2 feet from the carabiner. Jerk vigorously outward, downward, and to each side, observing the piton meanwhile, repeating if the test is questionable. Tap the piton. If the pitch has changed much, drive the piton in as far as possible; if the sound regains its original pitch the piton is good. If not, the crack has been enlarged and the piton should be treated with sus­picion. This test alone should not be relied upon if the piton does not look good. Nor should the tester rely on the piton he is testing.
   
   
4. Check the carabiner to see that it will not cause unnecessary friction as he climbs beyond it, and that the gate is not likely to open accidentally owing to pressure against rock, rope, or piton.
   
   
5. Beware of pitons that have been used, removed, bent, and straightened. Pitons already in place should seldom be trusted; weathering will loosen them in time, and only the man who has just driven a piton has adequate knowledge of how good it is.

Rappels.—The climber with a rope can descend quickly by means of a rappel—sliding down a rope which has been doubled around such rappel points as a tree, projecting rock, or two firm pitons tied together. Procedure for rap-pelling:

1. In selecting a route the climber should be sure the rope reaches the bottom or a place from which further rappels will reach the bottom.
   
   
2. The rappel point should be tested carefully for soundness, and inspected to see that the rope will run around it when one end is pulled from below.
   
   
3. If a sling rope must be used for a rappel point, it should be tied double; if around a rock, it should sag a little, rather than be taut. Use several loops of nylon or Manila sling, keeping all loops of the same dimensions- Avoid parachute cord. If any lowering under tension is contemplated, use a descending ring or sacrifice a carabiner; running a climbing rope directly over slings will lead to disaster.
   
   
4. The first man down should: (a) Choose a smooth route for the rope, free of sharp rocks, (b) Place loose rocks, which the rope might later dislodge, far enough back on ledges to be out of the way. Always use an upper belay for all but the last person, who should be protected by a lower belay if possible, (c) Prevent the doubled rope from twisting by placing the index finger of the braking hand between the two ropes (see below), (d) See that the rope will run freely around the rappel point when one end is pulled from below.
   
   
5. Each man down signals "Off rappel" (by pulling alternately on each end of the rope so that the rope runs across the rappel point).
   
   
6. When the last man is down, the rope is recovered. The climber should pull it smoothly, to prevent the rising end from whipping around the down-moving rope, and he should stand clear of falling rope or the rocks it may dis­lodge.

Several rappelling techniques may be used; only the body rappel is given here: The climber should face the rappel point and straddle the doubled rope. From the rap­pel point the rope goes between the legs, under the left buttock, up and in front of the left hip, across in front of the chest, over the right shoulder, and across the back to the left, or braking hand. The right hand grasps the rope running to the rappel point at about shoulder height. It is used only to steady the body and hold it in the desired position. Trying to support the weight with the right hand will result in a rope burn. The left hand can be held to the rear wherever comfortable, so long as the arm is nearly straight. Friction can be increased if the hand is moved forward, reduced if moved backward. Control of speed will be learned more easily, however, if the hand itself is used as a brake. The climber then leans away from the rock just far enough for his feet to hold, with his weight supported by the rope, and descends slowly, leading with the left leg to make certain that the rope stays in place. He soon learns to rappel in longer and longer bounds, and to use insulation against heat on the shoulder and under the buttock.

Corrective Measures

Belays.—In party climbing, two or three men tie in to a 120-foot length of rope. Belaying provides the necessary safety factor or tension, enabling the leader to climb. With­out belaying skill the use of rope in party climbing is a hazard, not a help. When any one man is climbing, he is belayed from above or below by another man, who may use any one of several belay positions.

Procedure for all positions.—The belayer should per­form the following duties, and will obviously have his hands full:

1. Select a position that will best protect the leader if he falls. Where possible, the position should permit watching the climber.
   
   
2. Run the rope from the climber through his feeling hand (which tests slack), around the hips to his braking hand (which will serve as brake), and make certain the rope will slide readily.
   
   
3. Anchor himself to the rock with a portion of the climbing rope if his position is doubtful.
   
   
4. Be ready to move the braking hand close in front of the body so that body friction can help check the rope in a fall.
   
   
5. Make sure remainder of rope is so laid out as to run freely through the braking hand.
   
   
6. See that rope does not run over sharp edges of rock.
   
   
7. Avoid letting too much slack develop in the rope through constant use of the feeling hand, except where this hand is used as an anchor. Gently tug the line running to the climber, thus sensing his movement. Avoid taking up slack too suddenly and throwing the climber off balance.
   
   
8. Brace well for the final direction of a fall, so that the force of the fall will, whenever possible, pull the belay man more firmly into position.
   
   
9. Be able, in case of fall, to perform the following movements automatically: (a) Relax feeling hand and move braking hand in toward body for friction. (6) Let the rope slide enough to let braking action be applied gradually, (c) Hold belay position, even if this means let­ ting the rope slide. No one profits if the belayer holds the rope so firmly that he is pulled from his belay position.

Sitting belay.—This is the preferred position when pi-tons are not in use. The belayer should attempt to get good triangular bracing between his two legs and buttocks. Wherever possible, legs should be straight. The rope should run around the hips at belt level or lower and be above anchoring rope, and braking and feeling hands should be held inside the thighs. If the belay spot chosen is back from the cliff edge, friction of rope over rock will be greater, and will simplify holding of falls, but the direc­tion of the pull on the belayer will be directly outward, and the leader is less easily watched. If the belay spot chosen is at the very cliff edge, friction will be much lower, but a fall will pull the belayer directly down into his position. Such a spot will require the belayer to hang his feet over the edge, and should not be taken unless the sitting posi­tion slopes back and down into the cliff.

Standing belay.—This weak belay position with the rope running around the hips, although far stronger than the frequently advocated but wholly inadequate shoulder be­lay, is never preferred to the sitting belay (except as varied in the piton belay). An anchor is almost always essential.

Piton belay.—As soon as the leader has placed a reliable piton, the direction of pull when he falls will be forward and up on the belayer, who should therefore have a low anchor directly in line with this direction of pull, and should run the belay rope just below his buttocks. Both knees should be bent, to prevent the rope from sliding up above the buttocks. The braking arm should be extended; when a fall occurs the arm is brought in, with steadily in­creasing resistance, to a position in front of the hip where as much rope as necessary is then allowed to slide through the hand. A fall is easier to hold with a piton than without, especially through several pitons, because of the added friction between rope, rock, and carabiner. For this rea­son it is imperative that the belayer keep enough slack in the line to prevent the fall from jerking to a stop; likewise, he must not resist the fall too much when its impact first hits him.

Tension belay.—This is used when the leader, having placed a piton, wishes to lean back on his belay rope, either to rest or to drive in a higher piton. The piton belay posi­tion is used, except that the belayer, to support the leader, sits back into the rope and brings his key hand close in to his body to provide all possible friction.

Rock or tree belay.—Where possible, the leader passes his rope behind rock projections or trees, which can serve the same protective purpose as pitons. Precaution: he should avoid passing the rope over sharp edges, or in crevices where the rope could jam or cause too much fric­tion as he climbs beyond. When a rock or tree belay has been definitely established, the belayer should assume the piton-belay position.

Anchors.—Experience in knowing how heavy a shock a good belay position will withstand will tell the belayer when he should take time to anchor, and when he need not. Until he has that experience, he should not belay a leader. He may anchor either to a rock, piton, or tree, and should ordi­narily use two half hitches on a bight around the anchor. Small bushes may serve well if the anchor rope is passed completely around the base. The anchor should be tied with a portion of the climbing rope next to the belayer, and should be tied snugly enough to keep the belayer in posi­tion and not allow him to be jerked against the anchor in case of fall. Given a choice between anchoring to a rock point or belaying around it, the belayer should prefer to anchor.

Party Climbing

The rope converts two or three men into a team; they tie together whenever by so doing they increase their mu­tual safety and ability on difficult slopes. Although the rope is rarely used to pull on, it is, strangely enough, something to lean on. A leader who knows that his team, through proper rope handling, can stop his fall, will have moral support that materially raises his ability to lead. Before rope management can be adequate all members of the team must know the theory and have practiced so thoroughly that the rope is at no time a nuisance. The rope cannot boss the team; rather, the team should be able to dominate the rope, and more, to do so subconsciously. Three men who, roped together, can ascend a mere 500-foot slope of talus mixed with brush, moving at varying speeds, varying dis­tances apart, jumping now and then from block to block; who can avoid dragging the rope on the ground, snagging rock points, or involuntarily throwing clove hitches around occasional branches; who at last reach the top with no snarls in their rope, having not once uttered "Wait a min­ute!" nor suffered any feeling of irritation, or are for that matter still on speaking terms—these three have achieved a good basic technique in the management of the rope. Should they learn belaying and rappelling as expertly, then moral support derived from their rope, if it is a good rope, will be based on a deserved confidence.

Continuous climbing (or roped walking).—Following is the procedure for dangerous, but not difficult climbing, in which an unchecked slip would be disastrous, but where a slip can easily be checked with a rope without use of a standing belay. The procedure also serves for easy going between difficult pitches, to save time of unroping, and is always used, with variations discussed later, on snow-covered glaciers.

1. Party ties in to rope. A, the leader, carries one loose coil of rope to be paid out if the rope is jerked suddenly. He climbs slowly enough to minimize the effort of B, the weakest man, who carries the rest of the rope. He selects a route behind trees or smooth rock points, so that these can serve as belay points in case of fall. On short, tough pitches he may gather in rope from B after he is up.
   
   
2. B and C watch the rope ahead, prevent its snagging in brush or loosening rocks, and keep it just taut enough to prevent dragging. They carry extra rope in neat coils in one hand, take up or pay out coils if they go faster or slower than the man ahead, and climb as well as they can with the free hand.
   
   
3. If there is any chance of a dangerous slip by one or the other, each man continually anticipates the stances he must assume quickly and effectively in order to stop the fall.

Rope of two.—In very difficult climbing, where only one man can move safely at a time, while the other belays, the best man goes up first, down last, and is the leader. The least experienced man does the opposite. When only two men are on a rope they can move about three times as fast as three men on the same rope. Two ropes of two men each are the strongest party that can travel a given route quickly. Vocal signals given clear and loud serve best as communication between leader and belayer. If wind is high, a code using high pitched "screams" has proved successful. Rope signals are inadequate if the route is circuitous and pitons vary the attitude of the rope. Never­theless, rope signals included below can be used for com-munciation when storm or angles of the mountain muffle oral signals which would normally be given. Procedure for two:

A, the leader, ties in, plans route, and awaits signal from B, the belayer.

B ties in, assumes belay position, anchors if neces­sary, belays, and motions A to climb.

While A climbs, B watches him, the rope, the route, and the rock, and begins to put resistance on the rope grad­ually when there is 20 feet of slack left, or calls out the number of feet.

B anticipates and is prepared for the final direction of pull of any fall.

When new belay position is reached, 10 feet or more from end of rope, A signals "Off belay" (two jerks on taut rope), takes in slack rope, assumes belay position, anchors if necessary, signals "Climb" (two jerks). Whatever belay position A chooses is normally used by B when A con­tinues, and should be strong enough to hold a 10-foot fall —the probable minimum if A slips.

1. B meanwhile replies "Off belay" (two jerks), takes off belay, answers "Climbing" (two jerks), follows A's route, climbing no faster than A takes up rope, signaling "Slack" (three jerks) when he wants him to pay out slack, or "Rope" (repeating two jerks) when he takes up rope too slowly.
   
   
2. If B is a proficient enough climber, he becomes the leader for the next pitch to be climbed; if not, he assumes A's belay position, and painstakingly avoids snarling the rope.
   
   
3. For rope signals the rope must be taut. To signal "Tension," climber places his weight on the rope (or one jerk) and belayer holds; belayer allows rope to run only on signal for slack, whereupon he pays out only as much as is pulled in by the climber at that time.
   
   
4. With two ropes of two men on the same route, the second leader follows B closely, accepting his upper belay if the pitch is severe and its ascent should be speeded, and anchoring B's belay of A if he is otherwise idle.

Rope of three.—(1) A climbs to the first belay position, brings up B, the second best climber, then continues to the second belay position, anchoring while B brings up C and follows A.

2) C anchors B when not climbing. On traverses, if C is the weakest climber, and A will not require B's better be­laying, then C should be in the middle.

Pitons for safety.—The leader uses pitons for protection whenever he feels and before he knows that he is dangerously high above his belayer and is likely to fall. He also uses them for holds if they are needed to speed up and safe­guard climbing, but does not use them in preference to natural handholds which are usually far quicker to use. The leader using pitons should:

1. Select, if possible, a route that will probably not require pitons, as it takes a great deal of time to drive them in and manage the rope when they are used.
   
   
2. Carry enough pitons and carabiners to take himself over the pitch, allowing for bending and loss; they should be carried, hooked into carabiners, on a sling placed over the shoulder and under the opposite arm.
   
   
3. Place and test pitons carefully.
   
   
4. Choose a route for the rope that will reduce fric­tion—the worst hazard in pitoncraft—where the rope bends around carabiners, binds over rock between pitons, or runs around the belayer's body. The greater the friction, the more the leader must pull on the rope to secure enough slack for each step, and the more likely is his injury if he falls. If he foresees that friction will be too great, he may lead with two ropes, snapping one into the carabiners until friction is high, tying the first rope into the top piton, and freeing himself and the second rope, now snapped into the top carabiner, for further leading, B tending the second rope.
   
   
5. Establish a well-planned belay and anchor that B can take over quickly and securely if the position is cramped. It may be better for B to assume the lead.
   
   
6. In a difficult position, snap into a piton as soon as it is driven far enough to be of any possible value, and test it later.
   
   
7. Have the last man recover the carabiners and re­move the pitons unless time is short.

Removing pitons.—The piton hammer is not strong enough for prying pitons. The climber should pound them back and forth in the crack with a hammer or rock, and when they are loosened, pull them out by repeating the pro­cedure for testing. It is advisable to be well braced, as they often come out very suddenly, and to see that no one is close enough to be struck by the flying piton.

Tension climbing.—The belayer, in tension climbing, holds the leader to the rock by means of rope and pitons, the carabiner in each piton serving as a pulley. Thus the leader may be above or to one side of his belayer and still be able to climb, driving pitons successively higher for ten­sion, even though natural holds are absent. Tension climb­ing is necessary when an easier route cannot be found or used. Often it is used in one or more short, difficult pitches in an otherwise easy route. The tension climber should follow this procedure:

1. Drive pitons no closer together than necessary for safety. The piton need not be so secure for holding body weight as for holding a fall.
   
   
2. Never hook a finger in a piton, but put in a carabiner and climbing rope, and hold on to them.
   
   
3. Use rope slings for foot and hand holds only when tension from the belayer will not hold him, through his highest piton, high enough on the rock to place a higher piton, or when the downward moment of the pull of ten­sion on the piton is the safest.
   
   
4. Rely on the belayer's tension, keeping both hands free for the work above.
   
   
5. Use alternate (two-rope) tension for the most diffi­cult pitches. Two belayers are desirable to slack off and hold the two ropes alternately as the leader, held by a taut rope, snaps a slack rope in successively higher pitons.
   
   
6. The belayer should anticipate the leader's needs so that few signals need be given.

Fig. 21. Tension (direct-aid) climbing.

7) When the leader requires tension, the second man will need assistance on that pitch. Any necessary rope slings should be left for him, or a second rope afforded as hand line while the leader gives tension.

Rope traverses.—The rope, used either for tension or as a rappel, may further aid the climber in traversing or swinging from a blind route across a holdless face to better climbing. The party should be assured of a means of re­turn before retrieving the rope.

Isolated pinnacles may be reached or gaps crossed by means of a Tyrolean traverse—a single-rope suspension bridge. The primary problem is anchoring the far end of the rope, which may be accomplished by:

1. Holding both ends of a doubled rope and throwing the looped middle across the gap to the far anchor point, securing it by judicious flicking around the anchor.
   
   
2. Tying to the intended far end some object which will securely jam in a crevice or tree crotch on the far side, thus serving as dead man.
   
   
3. Belaying one man across.

The near end is then anchored and cinched, with care, to prevent excessive sag. There should be a sag of more than 1 foot per 100 of unweighted line, and the rope must not be cinched repeatedly after loading or it will be seriously and cumulatively weakened through loss of resiliency. The rope is then crossed in a slothlike manner, each man, for security, hooking a carabiner through his waistloop and to the line.

Fixed ropes and hauling lines.—Passage of a difficult route that must be traveled often, perhaps by heavily loaded persons, may be simplified with fixed ropes and hauling lines. The rope is most helpful if anchored with figure-eight slipknots to carabiners or rope slings at frequent inter­vals. A better rope is installed if the climber works up from the bottom, belayed from above, and cinches each section as he goes. The line should be close to the rock, so that the hand may be used as a hook, rather than as a clutch. Loads are best hauled in the climbers' packs. If a pitch is too dif­ficult for a heavily loaded man to climb unaided, an endless upper belay loop may be contrived from a second climbing rope and carabiners (2 to diminish friction) that have been anchored above the pitch to serve as a pulley. The loaded climber ties in, then is belayed, or perhaps hauled, from below. All lines should be removed, both to keep the mountain clean and to avoid enticing inexperienced per­sons who might otherwise try to use them.

Rescue.—Fixed ropes, hauling lines, and the Tyrolean traverse are readily adapted to mountain rescues. Details of the use of mountain equipment for this work, as well as for the use of field expedients, were perfected by the Moun­tain Training Group of the U.S. Army, and are dealt with fully in the field manual, Mountain Operations. See also: "Neuzeitliche Bergretungstechnik,".

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