6. The Technique of Travel

Good touring technique will enable the skier to travel at optimum speed—farthest and fastest with the least effort and the greatest safety. It will make ski travel a sport and a pleasure. The purpose here is to follow the progress of a tour from start to finish, with a section devoted to each aspect of touring activity. Techniques which have stood the test of frequent use are suggested. This does not mean that they are the best for all time, however, and ski mountaineers should seek to perfect them. Indeed, eternal search for a better technique is the finest stimulus any sport can afford.

Organization

Leadership.—A party of ski mountaineers does not ordinarily require formal leadership. The party will usually get along best as a democracy, with the composite mind of the party, through free argument and discussion, making the decisions. When an emergency arises, how­ever, a leader should be chosen, and should be given full authority.

The leader must be considerate of his party; those who follow must be as considerate of the leader. This manual need not apologize for the Golden Rule, preach it, or explain the ramifications of its application to mountaineering. Perhaps it can be said that the need for the rule varies directly with altitude and length of expedition, and inversely with the number in the party. Since Mountain Craft, the mountaineer's bible, first appeared, more responsibility has devolved upon members of the party, less on the leader; only in emergency is he ex­pected in any physical way to help his party up a climb —a natural development of the trend away from guided climbing. But Young's precepts, one of which is that no mountaineering handbook can record "genuine mountain adventure or ... attitude of human mind towards the mountains and their symbolism," still hold. Certainly it should be pointed out that no one since Young has writ­ten better of ethics in mountaineering, and his code is recommended to any ski mountaineer who has ever had or ever expects any but pleasant human relations in mountains.

Whatever the form of leadership, it should provide that the party consist of no less than three, preferably four, persons. The party should keep together, not neces­sarily so close that its members will feel regimented, but close enough so that the entire party strength and equip­ment is available for emergency. The repair outfit will not be of much help to the last man if the first man has it, and is out of sight and hearing ahead. It is particularly important that the man with first-aid equipment remain in the rear during a long descent. This may save him a long climb back to an injured skier.

The problem of keeping a party together is minimized if great disparity in stamina and temperament of the individual members is avoided. In any but a solo expedi­tion, someone must always have the least stamina, and certainly deserves the consideration of his more robust companions; but if his stamina is far below the party average, his weakness becomes a hazard.

There are times when an unfortunate disparity of temperament cannot be foreseen, but that this is an ap­preciable hazard is clear. A rugged individual may veer from the chosen route, forget to help around camp, and revel in his unpredictability while the rest of the party suffers. For that reason it is well that the organizer of a trip should know men as well as materials.

Preparation.—From equipment and food lists the skier may compile an inventory of the items which he feels he must have if he is to enjoy his trip, remembering that the question isn't what he can use, but what he can do without. This list may well be framed on the closet door, or its equivalent, of the ski storeroom in the home. Thus is one certain to remember every necessary item. This may seem an inconsequential detail at first, but many is the ski trip which has been impaired by over­sight, some member neglecting to bring an obvious necessity—the butter, the salt, or the emergency ski tip.

Equipment should be in good order before the trip is started. Equipment that fails can be a hazard.

Elimination.—Unnecessary articles of equipment and food should be eliminated. Enjoyment of a ski tour varies inversely with the weight of the pack. Pack weight within a party can be kept to a minimum if the group will get together just before departure and weed out all unes-sentials and needless duplications. Every man will want his own toothbrush, but he need not be so particular about his flashlight, ski tip, or repair kit, so long as there is one of each in the party. A good motto is "when in doubt, leave it out."

Loading the pack.—Every article has its proper place in the rucksack. When some object is needed during the tour, it saves time and temper to know exactly where it is. And at night a cold and hungry group is no happier if everyone must empty his pack to find the salt. The best time to know where everything is stored is when the pack is made up. Heavy objects should go in the bottom of the pack, and as far forward as possible. Food in penetrable bags, and fuel—even the fumes of it—should be kept far apart, preferably in separate packs. Objects that are likely to be needed on the trail, such as lunch, first aid, wax, map, mitts, dry socks, should be readily available. Sharp or pointed objects should not be placed where they can injure the skier if he falls. The belly strap should be tied snugly enough to keep the pack from swaying from side to side, or from rapping the skier on the head when he falls.

If packing can be completed well before the trip is to start—at home or in a lodge—much time will be saved. When camp is broken, every skier should pack up quickly. The morning hours are often best for travel.

Loads should be distributed equitably throughout the party, at least at the start. A strong member should not endeavor to carry a double load. His strength may be a valuable source of reserve energy should emergency arise.

Checking and adjusting equipment.—Before starting, check poles to see that basket attachment is secure, steel edges to see that all screws are tight, toe irons to see that they are secure at the proper angle. Screws that tend to work loose too readily should be shimmed, with a piece of match stick, paper, or substitute.

Fasten the ankle straps, or improvise some other means that will prevent the escape of the ski should the boot come out of the binding. A runaway ski is only a hazard to others on a practice slope. On a tour, miles from help, you may be seriously stranded if your ski escapes, to shatter against a rock, or if both skis schuss by them­selves to the bottom of distant, separate canyons.

On long level or uphill stretches release the downhill tension of your bindings. If the toe irons have no touring hitch, it is sometimes helpful to run the cable direct from the forward attachment, inside the irons, and back to the heel. If tension is not released, an efficient stride is dif­ficult to attain, while blisters are not.

Snug lacing of boots will allay the formation of blisters and will increase control, but laces should be loosened during long rests, or at any time when it is more im­portant that the feet stay warm. In this respect the ideal source of downhill tension is a sturdy, resilient strip of rubber run across the instep and fastened securely well back of the heel. Boots that are more pliable may then be worn, and they need not be tied so tight.

Choice of route.—Each tour will present so many unique problems that there will be but few general rules for selection of route.

1. Do not select a destination beyond the prowess of the weakest member of the party.
   
   
2. If a route is apt to be dangerous because of storm or avalanche hazard, select alternate routes and escape routes, and predetermine how you will use them.
   
   
3. Anticipate the condition of the slopes you are to cross. Avoid, first, avalanche hazard; second, slopes that will have inadequate or poor snow cover. Take advantage of good snow surface—for instance, an early morning crust on shaded slopes.
   
   
4. Prefer the route that provides most protection from sudden storm and chilling wind. On hot days avoid, where possible, the hollows filled with stagnant air, or you may experience glacier lassitude.
   
   
5. Seek the more gradual slopes. They are safer and less tiring. The first man, in choosing a line of ascent, should consider the gradient most easily climbed by the party. Kick-turns should be kept to a minimum.
   
   
6. Memorize the terrain as well as possible. Know your bearings and, if storm or other cause will possibly make them necessary, write them down.

Timing the tour.—Start early. Plan to make camp well before dark. If the night is going to be warm and moon­lit, such precaution may not be necessary, but there are few skiers who can accurately make such a forecast. It is far easier to set up camp in daylight. Running water can be found and used before the evening chill freezes it. Night travel is usually accompanied by fatigue, as well as lower temperatures, and the chance of freezing is greatly increased. It does not make good sense to travel and camp inefficiently in the dark and then lose two or three hours of fine early-morning travel while making up for the lost sleep. No skier should be allowed to forget that he must travel with a substantial margin of safety so far as temperature is concerned. To enable him to travel freely, the weight of his items of equipment has necessarily been reduced to a minimum. He will, if properly equipped, have all the protective items that he could reasonably expect to use. But the chief danger is his own attitude, his indifference to danger. Skiing with­out a shirt in the afternoon sun can be most enjoyable and, when not overdone, healthful. But it should not dull the skier's alertness to the dangers inherent in high-altitude skiing in midwinter. Temperatures may drop sud­denly, and with little warning. A slight accident may cause unexpected delay. Storm or wind may arise. If the skier has planned to arrive at his destination early, he will still have a margin of safety. He need only in­sulate himself adequately, before his temperature drops to the danger point, and proceed at whatever reduced pace conditions require. Two hours of daylight is not too much to allow for making camp if the skier is planning an overnight stand.

Technique on the Trail

Clothing.—Use of a sufficient amount of clothing is im­portant. In anticipation of a hard climb, it is often easy to remove too much clothing before it is necessary to do so, and chilling results. It is easier to keep a warm body from chilling than to warm a chilled body. Conserve heat. For instance, when nearing a pass that is apt to be cold and windy, put on a parka before reaching the top. The skier who waits until his ringers are freezing before he starts to put on his wind mitts may never get them on.

On the other hand, do not wear so much clothing that overheating results. This leads to perspiration, which brings about two undesirable conditions: (1) salt is lost through the pores, and the skier doesn't always remem­ber to replace it in his food soon enough to prevent dis­comfort, or even mountain sickness; (2) clothing wet by perspiration becomes too good a conductor of heat, and, in the advent of low temperature, may speed the freez­ing of extremities.

A pace that is too rapid can similarly produce excessive sweating and the same two undesirable results, as well as tiring the skier.

Carrying skis.—Many tours start with a portage. Roads can be blocked for cars long before they are ski-able. There are several ways of carrying skis. It helps to vary the method of carrying.

1. Hand-grip fashion: Place the ski pole handle through the toe strap of the binding, and slide the pole backward until the tip of the ski enters the basket of the pole. Grasp toe strap and pole shaft together when carry­ing the ski this way, to prevent the ski from escaping or the pole from slipping out of position. Carry skis with tips forward, so that pole points can be kept clear of others in the party.
   
   
2. With running surfaces tied together with toe straps, skis may be carried over the shoulder, care being taken that they always clear the man behind. The poles may be carried in the other hand, tied to the skis, or carried over the opposite shoulder. This method is most useful for rough terrain or dense timber.
   
   
3. There are various but complicated means of tying skis to the pack frame, or slipping them through shoulder straps, thus freeing both hands. Or a line may be tied to the skis, which are then towed along behind.

Trail breaking.—In soft snow, trail breaking is arduous unless the lead is frequently changed. Choose a suitable length of time, depending upon snow conditions, for each man to lead, and after which he should step aside and take place at the rear. Even if a leader prefers to think that he is an "iron man," he should not overdo his turn at breaking trail. His excess energy may be needed later.

Ski tracks should be close together, but not so close that some of the group must scrape bindings to follow the tracks. Each succeeding person should try to improve the trail for the man behind, packing it harder, rounding out the corners, not wasting his energy on a new track.

Pace.—A steady pace with a moment's rest in each step is better than many spurts and stops. Don't "race your engine and spin your wheels." Excess energy may really be needed later.

For some reason the man in front often derives a mental stimulus, perhaps from his advanced position, that tempts him to go faster than those behind, who lack this "lift." He should therefore use it sparingly, adapt­ing his pace to that of the slowest member.

If one member of the party is chronically slow, there are four suggested courses of action: (1) If he demon­strates profound weakness at the start, suggest that he not go, but don't send him back alone. (2) Keep him well toward the front when traveling. If he is always in the rear, his brooding will further slow him. (3) Sug­gest changes in technique that may speed him. (4) Re­lieve him of some of his pack. This is a job for diplo­macy, but is nonetheless often essential to party safety in preventing undue delay.

Use of poles.—Ski poles are not just outriggers to help maintain balance. They should, rather, tend to make a quadruped of the tourer, distributing the work of traveling among all the large muscles. The legs, being the most powerfully muscled, must still do most of the work, but the arms can share much of it, often, with a judiciously placed thrust, sparing the skier a spasmodic attempt to regain traction. Try to use the poles so that they will bring into play those muscles of shoulder, arm, and chest used in the push-up. This is done by keeping arms and poles close to the body, pointing and driving the poles backward with a rhythmic follow-through, en­hancing propulsion by properly timing the thrust.

On traverses the uphill pole should be pointed farther back than the lower, and the hand should be placed over the top of the lower pole, in effect to lengthen it.

During the two-step the poles will best help to propel the glide if they are placed well forward and all the up­per body muscles used in the thrust.

The skating stride is stronger and steadier if both poles are used together on a backward thrust for each glide.

Lakes make the best boulevards, streams the poorest. Rush Creek lakes lead a ski mountaineer in toward Mount Ritter. Illilouette Creek crossings can be tricky on the way to Mount Starr King, in Yosemite. (20,21)

Sometimes you make the top, and look out at after­noon light along the Clark Range. Sometimes you don't, and merely look up at North Palisade and wait 'til next year . . . (22,23)

. . . and find that too stormy, the murk not clearing until time has run out and you're on the way down. If you are one ski mountaineer in a thou­sand, you'll get in a few pretty turns like this one. Eventually, breakable crust will throw you. But not discourage you. You'll be back again another year, but in the great country (24, 25; 26 following)

And if you make the top of Bear Creek Spire, which dominates that great country, you can look west to Lake Italy and its untouched basin —all of it supreme wilderness, even in summer. (27)

Then back to where you parked your skis, to roll up the climbing skins and get everything set for the run back to camp in Little Lakes Valley. (28; 29 following)

Pole christies and jump turns can be made upon shorter notice if the pole is held in the same way as for ordinary gliding, with the hand through the strap, grasp­ing the pole top, only one pole being used at a time. In both maneuvers the pole serves indirectly to swing the body, driving the turn to completion.

Use of wax and climbers.—Skiers should not become so dependent upon climbing aids that they forget how to climb without them. Proper use of wax, edging, poles, and route will enable the skier to cover rapidly the rises or dips of a few hundred feet which characterize rolling terrain. Much time can be lost if there are repeated stops for applying and removing skins. On the other hand, much energy can be wasted in the attempt to climb too long a grade without the aid skins can give.

Wax is adequately covered in a separate chapter; the skier is here merely reminded that a properly waxed ski climbs when placed, slides when pushed—all, of course, within the limitation of the slope. In climbing, then, each step should be preceded by a definite downthrust that will impress the crystalline pattern of the snow on the wax, and thus increase traction. A firmer thrust, if needed, will result if the front of the ski is lifted for each step. The harder the downthrust, the better the traction—ex­cept, however, as the exertion leads to exhaustion.

On cold sunny days avoid the damp spots which usually exist under trees, or the skis will ice up as soon as they again enter cold, dry snow. Snow will also clog on skis when the snow surface is wet and the lower snow is dry. Such slopes may sometimes be avoided by proper choice of route. If no choice is possible, the ice must be scraped from the running surface, and paraffin applied over the running or climbing wax.

One-step.—This is the most used touring maneuver. It is simply walking, or rather gliding, on skis, and its mastery is the essence of touring. Every extra pound of energy the skier puts into a step is multiplied thousands of times before the day is over. Thus, wherever possible, the skis should be slid, not lifted; downhill tension should be released to permit this. Poles must be func­tional, not ornamental. The angle of ascent should not be so great that it unduly tires the ankles. Other than for these suggestions, this manual cannot attempt to teach the skier to walk. Particular and continued atten­tion to efficient use of his own physical equipment must give each skier his own individual stride.

Two-step.—One of the most useful maneuvers for at­tainment of speed on the level or on slight downhill gra­dients is the two-step, which uses the gliding ability of skis. If the two-step is to be used for long, it must be deliberate and rhythmic, slow enough to let the skier re­lax during the glide between thrusts.

Take a short step for propulsion, lean well forward from the waist, placing the poles well ahead, and lunge into a glide on the opposite ski by shifting the propelling thrust smoothly from the driving ski to a strong follow-through with the poles. Slowly bring the driving ski alongside the gliding ski in preparation for the next short step. Occasionally two consecutive short steps are taken to change the glide from one ski to another (this constitutes the three-step), and to tire out a new set of muscles.

A two-step taken as the skier enters a dip will speed him through and help him up the other side. Opportuni­ties for such use of the step are frequent.

Skating.—A pleasant variation for gradual descents in suitable snow, and most useful for rapid and accurate changes of direction in dense wood-running, is the skating stride. This stride should not be a spasmodic picking up of alternate skis and subsequent struggle for balance.

Edge one ski sharply on the inside edge and strike off briskly from that ski at an angle of about 30° on the other ski, first giving a thrust with the edged ski and fol­lowing through smoothly and immediately with a strong backward thrust with both poles. Strive for a long glide, with the weight well over the gliding ski. Near the end of the glide, slowly edge the gliding ski in preparation for the next stride. The skier will soon learn not to overshift the weight onto the outside edge of the gliding ski, be­cause he will probably fall when he does so; but, on the other hand, he will never know the full effectiveness of the stride if he doesn't shift his weight far enough over the gliding ski.

The ability to ride confidently on one ski is well worth attaining, for the skier may often find himself momen­tarily and unexpectedly on one ski, and might as well feel at home there.

Telemark position.—Much controversy may exist with respect to the merits of the telemark as a turn, but it is generally agreed that the telemark position, with one ski well advanced, is the soundest position to assume when a sudden checking of forward speed is imminent. The position should be used when running from fast snow to slow, or to increase forward-backward stability in running across dips in the course, or in leveling out after a descent. Lateral stability is of course reduced, but the skier would do better to fall to one side than to fall forward when he buries both ski tips in the opposite side of a dip.

Herringbone.—Chief fault of the herringbone for the tourer is its inefficiency: the position, being unnatural, calls for an unordinary use of muscles; skis must be lifted too far; a track must be packed for the entire length of the ski with each step; traction is often uncer­tain. A deliberate herringbone, executed with rhythm, is nevertheless necessary for some short bits of climbing.

For traverses the half-herringbone is useful. Both skis are edged into the hill. The lower ski half side-steps, half traverses up the hill, at the highest angle at which it will hold. The upper ski slides ahead at a slightly higher angle. The grade of ascent is thus steeper than a simple traverse would permit. The upper ski will hold while the lower is picked up and placed higher. It would not hold if the lower ski were slid ahead in a parallel track.

Edging.—Proper use of edges provides a simple means of directly ascending short, narrow avenues. Both skis are edged in the same direction—to the right, for in­stance, by bending both knees forward and to the right. As a skier knows from his herringbone and many of his unsuccessful turns, skis edged too far will not run; they will, however, climb. Direction of edging should be changed from time to time so that the ankles and knees are not always bent in the same direction. This method of climbing develops the leg muscles required for chris-tianias. The harder the edging, the steeper the slope that can be climbed.

Side-stepping.—On steep, soft slopes, to avoid floun­dering—bringing the slope down to you instead of climb­ing it—leave as much space as possible between each pair of steps. This space usually provides enough support for the snow to keep it and the skier on the slope. Plac­ing the lower pole just next to the lower binding will also help.

On steep hard snow, use of the lower pole next to the lower binding will prevent sideslipping down an otherwise hopelessly steep and hard crust. The same technique will assist hard-snow traverses. Better purchase on the hard crust will be attained if the skis are swung sharply sidewise into the slope with each step.

Resting.—Skiers sometimes fail to realize they are overtiring themselves; more often they are reluctant to admit it, and will press on, subjecting themselves to the hazards of fatigue. The ill-effects of such a tendency are threefold: (1) In tiring himself, the skier loses skiing proficiency, and is more apt to fall and injure himself. (2) The person who is fatigued is predisposed to freez­ing. (3) The party that goes the limit of its endurance in good going has no margin of safety left when an emergency arises. One may experience a feeling of self-satisfaction at playing the iron man, but such heroics are better saved for the practice slope. On a ski-mountaineer­ing trip, just as in a military campaign, the man who gets injured is a hazard, no matter how much sympathy he may deserve.

Accordingly, it is essential that the members of any touring party watch themselves for signs of fatigue, and plan for periodic rests. If a member of the party feels he should rest, he should not be too proud to say so. He'll cause the party less trouble if he rests before it is too late. Particularly important, a skier should rest ef­ficiently when a stop is made—take off his pack to re­lieve shoulders and back, sit down on a convenient rock, log, or on his pack, and relax. He should at the same time avoid chilling, either by seeking shelter or by pro­viding shelter with extra clothing. If the skis can be kept on, the feet will be kept warmer. On a sunny day it is easier to stop in a mixture of sun and shade and to con­trol one's temperature by moving a yard or so than to add and remove clothing.

At times the party may need only stop for breath, each man leaning forward and supporting much of the weight of his pack on his poles.

Rests should not be too long. "The longer the rest, the harder the start."

Eating on the trail.—A skier can do no more on an empty stomach than a soldier. There are some, who, un­der the unaccustomed exertion of a ski climb, are fam­ished to a point almost of illness after four hours with­out food. It is better to use food for energy than to rely upon stored energy in the body.

A mountaineer may often be using so much energy that he cannot, or at least should not, eat enough at conven­tional mealtimes to provide that energy. But he can eat oftener. Two lunches, of easily digested foods, can be the solution. Dextrose foods are quickly assimilated. Dried beef and fruits (in limited amounts) are good for munching along the trail. When possible, lunch places should be near some supply of liquid water; the more the skier drinks during the day, the less will he have to melt snow and use fuel when he makes camp. Further­more, if he is not so thirsty at dinner time, he can use more space for the solid food he needs to restore energy and tissue.

Stream crossing.—Ordinarily the ski tourer can cross the smaller high-mountain streams on a snow bridge, taking care that the bridge is substantial, that his weight is evenly and gradually applied, and that only one skier at a time try to cross.

Failing to find a snow bridge, the skier should look for a log crossing, take off his skis, and proceed cau­tiously. As a last resort, it may be necessary to rig a raft of some sort. The buoyancy of air mattresses should not be overlooked. Also dead, dry logs may be cut with the lightweight saw blade (see p. 78).

Particularly toward the end of the day, when there is little chance to dry out and get warm easily, the skier should not take chances of falling into a stream. The danger of freezing afterward is serious.

The mountaineer may devise a Tyrolean traverse (see p. 203) if suitable anchor points are available. If the stream must be forded, he should:

1. Search for the ideal ford—where the stream fans out and flows shallow and slowly over a smooth grave) bed.
   
   
2. Remove socks, to keep them dry and warm, but wear boots to protect feet.
   
   
3. Select good footing for each step, step on the up­ stream side of submerged obstacles, and move each foot forward under water (not lifting it above the surface).
   
   
4. If the current is swift, use a ski or long pole as a third leg, braced farther upstream the swifter the current, and move only one leg at a time.
   
   
5. Where the channel is deep and boulder-filled, cross below a bend that best facilitates an upstream belay. The leader should use a pole brace and cross above emerged boulders that can serve as intermediate belays. A sub­ merged rope can have a pronounced undertow on the leader.

Downhill touring.—To travel safely in rough moun­tain terrain, far from the rescue crews of a ski patrol, requires conservative skiing. Caution must be the ski mountaineer's watchword. It is easy enough to break a leg on a practice slope, where the position and texture of every bump, and the angle of every turn, have been memorized. It is far easier to get into trouble on a long trip in new country, where not only is the topography unknown, but also the snow conditions vary remarkably. In a run of several thousand feet off a high peak the skier may, in addition to perfect open slopes, encounter wind-cut snow, ice, the two combined at intervals of a few feet, deep powder, heavy snow, wind and sun crust that is breakable at times, wet snow, thin snow, sticky snow, and slush. Visibility may be superb, it may be zero. Character of the snow may be indistinguishable in the flat light of a muggy day.

This variety of conditions is the skier's curse. But it is more. It is his challenge. It becomes as fascinating as it is important to learn how to handle these handicaps, and to like them. There is some pleasure in executing a series of beautifully linked christianias on a practice slope, but that satisfaction is diminished by the fact that, in this day of proficiency, nearly every other practice-slope skier can execute them as well. But to make, with few falls, a descent of the myriad snow surfaces the ordinary high mountain provides is more than a satisfac­tion. It is a triumph. It is the ski mountaineer's meat.

No manual can explain the techniques necessary for each snow condition. Each skier must learn the hard way; surely he would rather do this. But a few sugges­tions may give direction to his experiments, and spare him bodily harm. The imperatives are:

1. Ski no faster than you can judge in advance the snow texture you are about to hit. In descending a moun­tain, follow where possible the general route of ascent. Even though the interim hours will doubtless have changed the snow, you will at least have a hint of what to expect.
   
   
2. The worse the snow, the more evenly should the skis be weighted, and the more sure you should be that both skis are doing the same thing—going in the same direction.
   
   
3. Do not start a descent without first fixing your ankle straps so that there is a reliable emergency con­nection between you and the ski should you fall and the binding release. A runaway ski may strand you disas­trously.
   
   
4. One of the most useful ski-mountaineering turns is the short-radius, lifted stem-christiania with the aid of the inside pole. It is accomplished at low speed, and the combined thrust of the inside ski and the inside pole will serve to drive the outside ski through any but the heaviest snow.
   
   
5. Keep skis together. Consider the photographers in your party and don't leave a "railroad" track. A narrow track, besides looking better, indicates safer skiing. Bal­ ance, if upset, can be restored with the shoulders and ample bending of knees and ankles; if worst comes to worst and a bump throws you, at least the bump will have affected both skis equally. Most damage is wrought when a fall, in and of itself, stops only one ski.
   
   
6. When in doubt, traverse and kick-turn. An open christy into the hill, with the aid of the upper pole and body swing, can with little practice be made in any snow conditions. This is true of no other turn but the kick-turn, which will reverse the direction in preparation for another traverse and open christy into the hill. Stem-christies away from the hill at thirty miles per hour are prettier to watch and more thrilling to execute than are kick-turns, and should be attempted, though perhaps at lower speed, when conditions warrant; but a fall with a pack, in poor snow that may thinly conceal a sharp rock, may not be thrilling.
   
   
7. It saves time and energy to use a prolonged and gradual route of descent, rather than to make a quick and steep descent, thereafter having to pole on the level.

The purpose here is not to urge that every ski moun­taineer be an alarmist, nor that he establish a copybook code of skiing morals. The instinct of self-preservation will, after all, tend to protect even a skier. He should merely take care that this instinct does not become at­rophied.

"Don't schuss in where angels fear to stem."

Storm, Night, and Fire

Travel in storm.—Travel in a snowstorm requires spe­cial care. Visibility is poor, and although air tempera­tures usually are not so low as they often are in fair weather, wind, clouds, and snow will chill the skier much sooner. It is difficult to get warm again, and opportu­nities for rest are greatly reduced or absent, so that dan­ger from fatigue is increased. The skier should there­fore wait out the storm in camp, where he can be both comfortable and safe.

If it becomes essential to travel in storm, the follow­ing precautions should be taken:

1. Set up an "autocratic" leadership. Choose a com­petent leader and adhere to his decisions. Keep together. When the route is in doubt, no good will result if the party scatters in all directions looking for it. Confusion follows, sometimes chaos; at best, much time is lost. If search for the route requires separation, members of the party should keep within calling distance of each other—and keep calling.
   
   
2. Analyze the route of escape, the dangers of new-snow avalanches. Develop some plan, with alternatives, for using that route.
   
   
3. Locate your position. Take immediate bearings and record your bearings as you travel so that you can backtrack if you have to. The last man, with compass, should direct the party's route, taking care not to be misled in judging direction by the optical illusion brought about by swirling clouds.
   
   
4. Keep warm. There is little chance to warm up if you become cold. If there is climbing to do, put on climbing skins before it becomes too cold. Chilled fingers are almost useless. In very cold weather keep a scarf or facemask over the nose and mouth to prevent freezing of the lungs, or draw the parka hood across the face and breathe the air that has been warmed by the body. Don't over exert.
   
   
5. Keep dry. Don't so burden yourself with clothes that you perspire and get wet from the inside (this is easy to do). Keep the pack waterproof. Chances are it will be heavy enough without being soaked.
   
   
6. Don't go hungry. Food is a source of necessary heat. Too often the discomfort of stopping to eat in a storm is apt to result in the skier's eating too little. Rely on quick-energy foods that can be eaten quickly, and eat them frequently, on the trail if you prefer not to stop. A simple rule is, eat sugar for energy, protein for heat.
   
   
7. Ski slowly and cautiously. At best visibility is so much poorer during storm, as well as in some storm-bred flat light conditions, that it is most difficult to determine snow texture and topography well enough in advance to permit speedy travel. Any accident is doubly seri­ous during storm. Don't protect the eyes so adequately that you in effect blindfold yourself; better, slow down, lower the head, and look through the eyelashes.

Travel at night.—Night travel has most of the disad­vantages of travel in storm. Although the weather may be more agreeable, visibility, even during brilliantly moonlit nights, is much poorer and travel should be slower. The precautions are the same as for storm travel; in addition, each group of four should be equipped with a headlight, and the battery should be worn so that the cells will be kept warm. The life of the cells will be longer if the light is used intermittently, and small portions of the route remembered until it is necessary to use the light again. The man with the light should remember the handi­cap of those behind, and that the farther behind they are, the greater is their handicap.

In descending steep slopes at night it is safest to side­slip.

Uniform distress signal.—A man or party who, be-yound question of doubt, requires aid should give three signals (=SOS) of any sort, audible or visual, at fre­quent intervals. A yell is perhaps the least satisfactory signal, because it will soon tire the vocal cords, and, un­fortunately, is often mistakenly assumed not to be a call of distress. The call for help is acknowledged by two signals (=0K) and an immediate attempt to help.

The skier who is lost should follow the maxim, "stay warm and keep cool." He must waste no effort. He should:

1. Sit down and think, carefully plan a way out of his predicament.
   
   
2. Try to retrace his steps to the last familiar land­ mark, seek a good point of vantage, and reconstruct the proper route from there.
   
   
3. Failing in this, he should stay put, build a fire, sig­nal for help, and prepare to bivouac.

Fire building.—To build a fire in the snow quickly, in stormy weather or at low temperatures, is sometimes a major problem. The fire may serve only as a convenience during a noonday stop, or it may be essential in case of accident. Where warmth is urgently necessary, however, the ski mountaineer should remember his tent and sleep­ing bag, in which he can keep warm and dry, and his stove, on which he can prepare hot, stimulating drinks.

If the skier wishes to, or must, build a fire, he should choose a spot sheltered from wind and falling snow. This may be in the lee of a rock, in the shelter of a large conifer, or in a small grove of saplings which break the wind.

After a prolonged, wet snowfall, or in regions where the forests are always wet, even the standing dead trees may hardly burn at all. Dead birch is often worthless; the wood is wet and punky within the bark. The bark, however, is excellent for starting a blaze. Dead hemlock is also likely to be rotten and wet, even though standing. Where oak is available, the dead branches offer the first choice for fire, and most oaks carry some dry, dead branches. Resinous, dead branches of most conifers burn well. These may be broken into small kindling material and, if wet, may be peeled off the soaked surface and ignited by use of a fire-making candle or a small amount of gasoline from the fuel supply. Or tinder may be shaved or split from the dry interior of branches. Small, stand­ing dead maples which have not become rotten make good firewood after the blaze is well started if they are first dried out over the blaze. It is sometimes necessary, in storm, to pile the wood on the fire tepee-wise to pro­tect the fire inside from snow and to dry the wood to the point where it will burn. Don't underestimate the quantity of wood that an all-night fire will require.

Ordinarily, dry, dead trees which have not been de­nuded of limbs and "squaw wood" (the small dead limbs under the live crown of a tree) are the most desirable. A few green poles four feet long laid side by side make an excellent hearth for a roaring and welcome campfire.

Small trees can frequently be broken off by rocking, either by repeated pushing or by use of a rope. Some mountaineers carry a small ax despite the undesirability of increased weight. Far better for those who anticipate the need of cutting green poles and dry firewood is a thin saw blade 36 inches long, 1 inch wide, and weighing 3 ounces, which is commercially available. Two four-inch nails are the handles. It rolls into a four-inch circle, yet can be used effectively to cut trees over a foot in di­ameter. The simplest method is to use it as a two-man drag saw, although a bucksaw can be improvised with a bent green pole four feet long, split at each end, with the ends of the blade made fast by the nails as pins.

Expedients for Steep Terrain

High-angle climbing on snow, ice, or rock, with its re­quirements of advanced rope technique, ice ax, cram­pons, and pitons, is beyond the scope of this chapter. A ski tourer should ordinarily be able so to select his route that he avoids steep terrain requiring advanced tech­nique. In no event should a party go beyond the limit set by its ability or equipment. Below are suggestions of ways by which the ski tourer can improvise from his ordinary equipment and technique the means to cope with moderately rough terrain. (See chapters 2, 15, 16, 17 for mountaineering equipment and technique.)

Avalanches.—The skier must bear in mind that the steeper the terrain, the greater the avalanche hazard to be considered.

Climbing without skis.—Among the precautions taken against avalanches, or when slopes become too steep, is removal of skis. At such times the most expert climber takes the lead, kicking a series of good steps straight up the slope, or as nearly straight as possible. Those who follow should try to improve the steps, at no time using the outer edges, which tend to collapse easily. The steps will hold best if the climber stands vertically in them, rather than leaning into the slope.

In a skiless descent of a steep slope, backing down is often the safest method. If this is known not to be nec­essary, one may descend facing out, driving the heels hard down and back into the snow. The skis should be held securely lest they be lost. The ski tails may be driven back into the snow as a brake.

When skis are cached and the climb continued on foot, skins should be removed at once; otherwise they will likely be frozen to the skis on the skier's return.

A substitute alpenstock can be improvised from two ski poles if the baskets are removed and the two shafts lashed together, side by side, for reinforcement.

Use of skis and poles.—When putting on skis on a high-angle slope, put the lower ski on first. It will then serve as a barracade for the other ski and other equipment which might otherwise escape.

Do not put the hands through the pole straps. In a fall one must be able quickly to slide the hand down the shaft in order to use the pole to brake the fall.

In falling, the skier should become adept at swinging the skis below the body and across the slope. A slide can seldom be stopped otherwise.

When standing upon or traversing a hard and steep surface, insert the lower pole in the snow beside the lower ski to prevent a surprise slip.

Cornices.—Owing to their potential avalanche hazard, cornices should wherever possible be avoided. If they can­not be, they must be cut or tunneled through. From above, one of the party, belayed, should approach the edge afoot and select the region of lowest angle for the break-through. If the overhang is severe, the tunnel should emerge well back from the lower part of the cornice, so that it will clear the skier should it collapse. The party should remain afoot until reaching slopes of low and safe angle, well below the cornice—but few slopes below a cornice can be truly safe.

From below, the procedure is reversed, with the ex­ception that it is easier to select the spot for the attack, and harder to make it, or to tell how secure the cornice will be. Accordingly, it is all the more essential that the leader start tunneling well in past the overhang. Or­dinarily the ski will serve as a digging tool.

Occasionally a ladder of skis and poles can be made up a vertical cornice by driving them into the compacted, steep face. Particular care must be taken to see that the skis, if loosened, do not escape.

Fielding.—Most frequent use to which a ski mountain­eer will put his rope is fielding, in the descent of slopes steeper or more exposed than should be descended with­out safeguard of some kind. In fielding, the most expert climber anchors to his ice ax, alpenstock, or skis that have been driven well into the slope, and pays out rope until the members of his party have descended its full length. Then, with the protection of his ice ax he de­scends to his party and repeats the process. If he is certain that he can check a long free slide with proper use of the rope, he may continue a full rope length below his party before anchoring and belaying its descent. The party should tie into the rope with a bowline (for the end men) and a butterfly (for those in the middle) ; these knots will not jam or cinch up.

Rappelling.—Ability to slide down a doubled rope and to recover the rope afterward provides an invaluable route of escape from steep and exposed summits in any weather. The mountaineer's method of sliding down the rope is the safest and most comfortable yet devised, and can be practiced at home (see p. 189).

Mountain blend. In the Alps it is commonly understood that the seasons are marked by a man's putting away his skis and taking out his rope, and vice versa. Ski mountaineers can take pleasure in confusing this nice distinction—they can take ropes on winter climbs and skis in summer. Mount Lassen, for example, will serve a skier nicely well into July. But he had better park his skis below the summit ridge when it is covered with ice feathers.

Ski mountaineers most likely to attain great competence are those who learn their craft in time to avoid crossing trails with an avalanche. Allen Steck, who took these photographs, will agree; he was buried by an avalanche, and survived only because a friend had a cold that day. If you insist on getting caught, wear a magnet and hope an untrapped friend has a portable magnetometer!

Best way to assure a long ski-mountaineering life is to learn to turn back in time. As of this writing, Mount Darwin has not yet been climbed in winter, but there was a very satisfactory first winter rappel {lower right) to its glacier, a safe retreat from a gathering storm, and a chance to try again another day.

(31-33; 30 preceding)

Transition, continued. A do-it-yourself ski tow was discovered one day on the approach to Sawtooth Ridge, part of Yosemite's northern boundary. Ski there just once, look at that superb granite, feel it, test it, look out from its sides and down from its top, and you will know why a moun­taineer is. II Look the world over for more granite like that. You'll find it on the Grepon, in France, but not on the mainmast of Shiprock, in New Mexico. But you'll still find things you were looking for as you climb there. (Note: See chapters 15-17 before looking.) (34-37)

You will find exciting places to rest, whether a Chamonix aiguille in France or Seneca Cave in West Virginia—and great, airy places to rappel from, whether a Piccola Cima in the Dolomites or a Lower Spire in Yosemite. But nothing will ever beat what happens when the shadows reach out for your morning tracks and you point your skis down over the powder. . . .

(38,39; 40,41 facing; 42 following)

… That's when you come closest to knowing how a bird feels »

High-angle climbing.—This, in itself, is the subject of later chapters. The novice not wishing to pursue the subject further should remember at least three rules:

1. Select the easiest, safest route; plan and remem­ber how to use it.
   
   
2. Maintain an adequate margin of safety; don't rely upon a single hold, but use two or three at a time.
   
   
3. Make the legs and feet do most of the work; leg muscles are far stronger than arm muscles, and a one inch hold will support a foot; arms and hands should be saved for balance and emergencies.
   

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