Equipment must be kept to the lightest weight consistent with reasonable durability and adequate pro­tection against emergencies. A light pack makes a trip more pleasant and control of skiing more certain. Even the robust man, who could easily carry much more, should always have as light a pack as possible, to main­tain reserve energy for emergencies and a reserve of carrying power in case of injury or fatigue of any other member of the party. He should further consider that if he is injured, the party must carry his pack—or discard some of it.

The equipment is divided into that which is (1) worn, (2) carried in the pack, (3) included for community use, and (4) necessary for difficult climbing on rock and ice. The equipment listed first in each of the divisions is the minimum requirement for a tour of at least one night on the snow, with possibility of blizzard and tem­peratures down to —30° F; "optional" equipment can be added as desired. The community equipment is based on a four-man party. Variation in the number in the party using the community and climbing equipment, as well as the type of expedition, would require some changes in the items suggested. Supplementary discussion is in­cluded in the chapters on Warmth and Shelter. Refer also to the Check List of Equipment on pages 221 and 224.

Equipment for Wear

Clothing.—Inner garments are preferably all wool, of loose weave, and should consist of several lightweight layers for greater warmth and to permit adjustment of the amount of clothing under changing conditions of weather and exertion. Cotton is undesirable; it absorbs and retains moisture, and then lacks the warmth of wool for garments of equal weight. Lower underwear should be woolen and extend to the ankles. It is not easily changed, and need for protection against extremes of cold should therefore be anticipated. Overheating may then be avoided by removal of clothing above the waist. The shirt should have a long tail. Inner socks may be light wool, oversocks of heavy wool or goat hair.

Outer clothing must be close-woven, windproof, water-repellent, with a smooth finish. It need not be wool. Rough or fluffy material must be avoided, for snow will cling to it and melt. Down garments utilizing the offset seam construction provide the greatest insulation for a given weight. It is important that outer windproofs fit loosely over inner down garments to allow for full ex­pansion of the down. Ski pants should be full at the knee and long enough to stay well inside the boot. Pockets on outside clothing should have zippers or adequate over­laps and fastening to keep out snow. A good all-metal zipper is not seriously affected by icing. Tabs should have thongs, for easier use by mittened hands. The parka should reach below the hips so that there is no gap be­tween parka and pants, and should fit loosely. Such a parka will protect the torso better. The pull-over type is best for blizzards, but a long throat zipper is needed for ventilation. Large pockets or muff are advisable. The parka must be water-repellent but not waterproof, except possibly for the shoulders and hood. A waterproof garment can easily become soaked from within by con­densing perspiration. The parka hood must have draw­strings to permit covering head and face, except eyes and nose. A cap or headband will supply necessary additional insulation for the ears. Overmitts should be large enough so that fillers will not press against the fingertips.

Ski boots.—Boots should be large enough for an ad­ditional pair of socks or for inner soles as added insula­tion. Lower temperatures should be expected and must be guarded against. The toe of the boot must be high enough to permit curling the toes under (to increase circulation) when worn with full set of socks and inner soles. The boot should, of course, be the best quality that can be afforded—economical in the long run since cheaper boots require earlier replacement. Rubber lug soles are desir­able on two counts: they provide better traction for climbing on rock and they offer more insulation than leather. The downhill boot, with its various strata of leather, is neither light nor flexible enough for touring, where there will be little need for downhill tension and the thick sole that can take it. But the touring boot must not be so limber as to sacrifice control. Gaiters of light windproof canvas are essential for keeping loose snow out of boots and socks.

Skis.—For best results the skis should be of good qual­ity, more flexible, and require more upturn on the tips than usually chosen for practice slopes or racing; how­ever, any standard model will be satisfactory. Metal or plastic edges are essential to accurate control on ice or crusty slopes of high angle. A ¼-3/8-inch hole should be bored near the tip of each ski so that the pair may more easily be converted into an emergency toboggan. Bindings are listed in the check list so that those who have separate binding parts will not forget them. Release-type bindings with suitable toe attachment for walking and climbing provide a greater margin of safety during the downhill run. Ankle straps, or other positive means of tying skis to ankles, are essential to prevent possible loss of a ski in a fall. Ski poles should reach from boot to armpit, being somewhat longer than for practice-slope skiing because they must be used more, often in softer snow.

Dark glasses (see also Snow blindness, p. 141.— Glasses should provide side protection against glare and driving snow. They must be adequately ventilated to re­duce fogging. Color should be quite dark, preferably in nonbreakable glass. Plastic lenses may not be optically correct, and may scratch easily. They weigh little, how­ever, and do not break readily. Polaroid removes only a small portion of snow glare.

Miscellaneous.—Pocket knife should be of good steel with screwdriver and leather punch for repair and ad­justment of skis. Matches should be carried in the vari­ous pockets and parts of the pack where they are most likely to remain dry. Reserve matches should always be carried in a waterproof case in the emergency kit. Matches may be waterproofed by covering them with nitrocel­lulose lacquer.

Optional items to wear.-—A hat with brim or visor protects against heat, snow, and overhead glare. A light­weight knapsack may be useful for short trips away from camp, or for half-day tours. A handkerchief may well be reserved for cleaning glasses, since the general utility bandanna soon becomes greasy. A lightweight watch may warn one when to turn back on a dull day.

Equipment to Carry

The rucksack.—This should be based on a rigid or semirigid frame. Center of gravity must be low and close to the body; the pack must not sway in fast turns nor go over the head in a fall. A belly strap is essential. If most of the weight is carried on the hips, shoulder mus­cles are relieved. The pack should also be free from con­tact with the back to avoid dampness from perspiration, which is particularly uncomfortable in cold weather. A pack with a rigid frame is easier and quicker to pack and heavy, irregularly shaped articles can be placed close to the body without gouging the back. The Bergans-type rucksack with frame and bellystrap fulfills these require­ments. Metal frames are more durable than rattan. Pack-boards of the Trapper Nelson or Yukon types are prefer­able for loads in excess of fifty pounds, or for packs that are not easily made up in a rucksack. The army ply­wood packboard is excellent.

Emergency kit.—This must be more than a first-aid kit, for the ski mountaineer may often be called on for "second" aid, for building a fire in adverse weather, or for repairing equipment. The kit should be as complete as ingenuity can suggest but must be small enough to be carried at all times when the skier is at all removed from help. A small kit of essentials that is always car­ried is of far more value than a kit so complete and cum­bersome that it is left behind. A suggested list of items is as follows:

Matches in waterproof case      Tincture of merthiolate

Large firemaking candle       Tannic or picric acid for burns

Compass     Antibiotic capsules

Sterile gauze pads and rolls       Codeine-aspirin capsules

Bandaids     Ammonia ampules

Two razor blades          Toilet tissue

Whistle     Small notebook and pencil

Needle and thread     Braided iron picture wire

Safety pins   Small tweezers

These items will go into a Boy Scout model first-aid case, 2X4X6 inches; total weight 19 ounces. In ad­dition there should be 5 yards of-inch adhesive tape, not waterproof.

The candle or substitute can be very helpful in start­ing a fire under adverse conditions. Braided iron pic­ture wire is for repair of bindings. Two razor blades are suggested; one as a substitute for scissors, the other in its original heat-sterilized wrapping for minor sur­gical needs. The National Ski Patrol and other organi­zations have found that vocal calls for help are frequently misunderstood and disregarded. A whistle attracts at­tention and saves energy when it may be needed most. Three blasts signify "help!"

Other contents of pack.—Miscellaneous items in the appended check list down to and including wax should be carried on all tours, even when an overnight camp is not to be made. The map should preferably be topo­graphical. Mittens should be loose-woven wool, and used inside of the windproof, water-repellent overmitts when low temperature requires. Gloves with separate fingers are not satisfactory since each finger radiates heat sep­arately and cannot help to keep the others warm. A sep­arate index finger, however, permits camp tasks to be performed without clumsiness. The index finger can be drawn into the mitt when cold. Sunburn protection is essential in spring skiing, and may be necessary even before March. The brilliant reflection from snow, par­ticularly in the clear air of high altitudes, may cause seri­ous burns. Tannic acid in powdered form, mixed with water in the palm of the hand at the time of use, is pleas­ant and satisfactory for most skiers. It may also be made up or purchased in alcohol solution. Some skins require opaque protection, such as zinc oxide. Each skier must determine his own requirements. A headband pro­tects the ears in cold weather, particularly when wind-proofed by the parka hood. A light blizzard visor is de­sirable in severe storm. Two light sweaters of adequate length will furnish emergency protection to 0° F and will serve to insulate an injured person. One or two extra large bandannas may be carried for general use and for emergency triangle bandages—or vice versa. Climb­ers for the skis will ordinarily be on the skis during climbs, but must otherwise be in the pack, so the weight is listed.

For optimum insulation with least weight and bulk, a sleeping bag should be made utilizing the offset-seam principle, with a continuous layer of 100 per cent pure down surrounding the sleeper. The best design will also incorporate the differential cut which allows the inner shell to be stretched at points of contact without tighten­ing the outer shell, thus diminishing the thickness of the insulation. Zippers, if any, should be protected with down strips. The outer cover should be water-repellent, not waterproof. The mummy design is best with hood ar­rangement that can be either fully open or tightly closed. With a bag designed to conserve heat most efficiently, with bags placed close together and with most of the skier's daytime clothing worn in the bag,to 3 pounds of down will be adequate down to —30° F. Such a bag will weigh from 4 to 6 pounds. Multiple sleeping bags, holding 2 to 3 people, conserve heat most efficiently and save weight and space. It is important to prevent heat loss through to the snow layer beneath. While air mattresses offer reasonable warmth, the foam plastics are better insulators (see page 20). For example, a 3/8-inch piece of ensolite 30 by 15 inches will provide ample in­sulation at extremely cold temperatures. Effective in­sulation under the sleeping bag is essential at such tem­peratures.

Extra clothing.—A complete change of socks should be carried. Damp or wet socks conduct heat from the feet. A long Balaklava helmet of loose-knit wool will, when worn under the windproof parka helmet, protect the throat, the back of the neck, chin, the nose, and, indirectly, the lungs.

Personal items.—These must be kept to a minimum in weight. A small hotel-size bar of soap will serve. The extra bandanna makes an adequate towel. Each man should carry a metal cup, which should be easily ac­cessible in the rucksack.

Optional individual equipment.—Extra dark glasses may be carried, although one pair in community equip­ment should be sufficient. On long trips extra optical glasses should be carried if needed. Emergency food is desirable. For pitching the individual tent above timber-line, three 10-inch duralumin tent stakes weighing only 2 ounces are enough. Tent stakes are not essential, how­ever, for skis and poles serve better, and the tent need not—in fact, should not—be left pitched when one is away from it. In severe climate, windproof overpants may be essential. They should be made of material simi­lar to that of the parka. For those using optical glasses, a case will be found useful at night.

Community Equipment

This category includes principally cooking equipment and food, with certain additional items for repair, first aid, and emergency. If a two-pound tent section is not carried by each man, the tent will of course be included in community. Most parties are strict in keeping the com­munity to the lightest possible weight but do not exer­cise enough control over personal equipment. It must be emphasized again that no one should be permitted to carry an unnecessary item merely because "he wants to."

Tent.-—Lightweight, easily pitched, but not too roomy is the two-man type of tent. The design shown (fig. 1), when made up of-ounce waterproof poplin with a  -ounce percale floor, weighs but 4 pounds. It will house three men comfortably, and can hold four. It may be pitched with two to four skis, two to five poles, in­cluding one under the peak of the ridge. The sod-cloth on the flaps surrounding the floorless cooking space must be weighted with packs or food bags during heavy wind. Suggested dimensions (in inches) for the tapered tent are as follows: width at front, 64, at back 30; height at front 51, at back 20; length of ridge, 88; triangular front flaps, 60 by 60 by 30, joined by 42-inch zipper; width of sod cloths, 10. The 4-man Logan-type tent with 8 by 7-foot floor plan weighs 12 pounds but provides greater ease in cooking and will be more comfortable when the party is pinned down during bad weather.

Repair kit.—Each party must be certain that it has adequate repair equipment, weeding out unnecessary duplications. Suggested items are:

Combination wrench-plier-screwdriver

Ski tip and contraction band, key or nail

Ski-pole mender (piece of light sheet metal)

30 feet 3/16G-inch line

Philips screwdriver and screws

4 slender 11/2-inch bolts with nuts and washers

2slender 11/2-inch screws 2 heavy 3/4-inch screws

3feet braided iron picture wire

6 feet 1/4-inch rawhide Sewing kit Extra flashlight bulbs, proper type Toe strap Extra matches

Toe strap Extra matches

The contraction band (or flickzeug) is compact, light, and will repair a broken ski unless the tip is shattered or lost. To repair such a break a sturdy aluminum ski tip (or a plywood tip with a contraction band) is essential. A nail is advised to supplement the key (in case the soft iron of the bolt heads becomes so rounded that the key will not grip) but the bolts must be drilled for it. Miscel­laneous bolts and screws are advisable for supplemental repair. Other items may of course be added, but ready portability should not be sacrificed; this kit must always be with the party. If the party has any intention of break­ing into two or more units, it would be wise to have a repair kit for each unit.

Flashlight.—A headlight will serve for a party of four. It is superior to a hand light, since it will free the hands. and the battery can be kept warm next to the body. The most efficient temperature for the cells is 70° F. Their efficiency is 50 per cent at 30° F; at 0° commercial cells will not function. The switch on any flashlight should be so designed that it cannot be accidentally turned on in the pack. Fresh battery cells should be put in the case at the start of the trip.

Cooking stoves.—A lightweight gasoline stove should be carried even for camps below timberline. One may cook over a wood fire built on the snow, but in severe weather such a procedure is most uncomfortable and it is difficult and time-consuming to make the fireplace blizzardproof. Though a variety of stoves can be recom­mended, the most reliable is the kerosene-burning Primus type, with roarer burner and built-in pump. One stove, half-pint or one-pint size, will be adequate for each tent. With two half-pint stoves, two courses can be cooking simultane­ously; however, the pint size, with larger burner, is more efficient. If the stove is carried in a small bag of gasoline proof fabric, chance fuel leakage will not spread so easily throughout the rucksack to flavor the food. One should learn the idiosyncrasies of these stoves before planning to cook with them in the mountains.

Fuel.—The amount of fuel required will vary with the number in the party, number of stoves, and method of cooking. Far more will be required if snow—especially powder snow—must be melted for water. A reasonably safe average with one-pint stoves is a pint of fuel per stove per day (about a two-hour supply). Used con­servatively this should be enough for four men at temperatures down to 0° F. Inexperienced parties should take more until their requirements are definitely known. If a Primus stove is used, alcohol will be advisable for priming. In general, the fuel should be white gasoline. No ethyl should be used because of the hazard of lead poison­ing from accidental internal use, contact, or fumes; such fuel will also clog the stove. With highly volatile gasoline one must guard against fire hazard, especially if gasoline is spilled within the tent. Be particularly careful to re­lease the stove's internal gas pressure slowly to avoid spurting of liquid fuel or ignition of the vapor. Reason­ably good ventilation is required to minimize the possible danger of carbon monoxide poisoning when the stove is burning in the tent. A small funnel is needed unless fuel cans have a proper pouring spout. The closure of any can to be used for fuel should be tested by squeezing the can to see if any air is forced out.

Cooking equipment.—This must be kept to a minimum, to save weight, space, as well as time and fuel in cooking. Palatable two-course meals can be prepared, for which two nesting 21/2-quart pots with covers (for efficiency) will suffice. Adequate, lightweight utensils may be im­provised out of 3- and 4-quart cans. The scout-type knife recommended has a can opener, but a small 1-ounce key type may be preferred. A cup and spoon per man, plus a stirring tablespoon, complete the essential equipment.

Food (see pp. 51-55).—In calculating weight of food the net of 21/4 pounds per man-day must be increased to the extent of cans or other containers that are carried. Toilet tissue and match requirements will vary with the number of man-days. At least one paper of matches a day—or preferably about 20 wooden matches—should be carried, and the waterproof matches kept in reserve.

Additional emergency equipment.—A light hand ax and sheath is considered essential by many experienced winter mountaineers, for it enables one to provide ade­quate shelter and fire wherever sufficient timber can be found. It is omitted from the list of advisable equipment because the tent and stove are adequate below, as well as above, timberline (see p. 76). A light shovel is con­venient for making camp in addition to its emergency value for avalanche rescue; many also list it as essential. Long trips require boot wax, additional flashlight cells, and a small packet of repair parts for the stove.

Miscellaneous optionals.—These should be kept as low in weight as possible. Tact is required in limiting the number of cameras on a trip. They add appreciably to the weight carried, and it is usually possible to arrange that one camera be taken, other members of the party sharing in its use, the cost of films, and the prints. A spring scale is useful when packs are loaded at the start of a trip—but should be left there.

Equipment for Rock and Ice

As the ski mountaineer reaches terrain which is pre­cipitous or heavily glaciated, he will find he must place less emphasis on skiing and more on mountaineering. He may reach a point where he must forsake his skis for specialized equipment to aid him on high-angle rock and ice; for while he will be able to carry ice ax, crampons, and rope in his rucksack as he skis on gentle slopes, he will probably be more than glad to leave all excess equipment, including skis, in a base camp when finally he must rely on ax and rope. Certain minimum require­ments exist for the special aids the ski mountaineer will need, and these are given below. An objective study of the merits and demerits of "Modern Ice-Climbing Equip­ment" is given by Robert L. M. Underhill in the Canadian Alpine Journal for 1933, and his discussion is recom­mended to the ski mountaineer with ambitions.

Footgear.—First choice for ski mountaineering is a ski boot with the rubber-cleated (Bramani-type) sole. The skier thus equipped can travel on any surface but glare ice without removing the shoes he skis with. This is a great advantage, for changing of footgear in low tempera­tures may lead to freezing of the feet. The sole should fit the foot, and not have a wide welt.

Second choice is a well-nailed ski boot. Edge tricounis with tricouni studs in the middle of the sole and a tricouni heel provide an excellent nail combination and will not harm the binding other than to scratch the foot plate. The binding may have to be readjusted. Rubber in the center of the tricouni heel will minimize balling of snow. Edge nails should be under the edge of the foot, not beyond it.

For dry rock there is nothing better than ankle high leather boots with shallow-tread Vibram soles—the so-called Kletterschuh. Such a sole will hold well on wet rock, but not on wet moss or lichen. The shoe should fit snugly over the desired sock combination, and the sole should not extend far enough beyond the foot to roll from small holds.

Rope.—Two 120-foot lengths of-inch rope, with two men on each rope, will be best for difficult climbs that require belaying. The two ropes may be tied together for descents by rappel. A 200-foot 5/16-inch rope can be used for rappelling, and will serve the purpose of ski-mountaineering trips with mild objectives. For severe strains the rope may be doubled, but both strands must share the load equally. Theinch rope is excellent for use in slings—for rappel points, Prusik loops, and other purposes for which rope is needed. It is considered bad form for a mountaineer to misjudge his requirement of sling rope and thus be forced to cut pieces from the end of his climbing rope.

Nylon rope has four times the effective strength of raanila hemp, and will be far less affected by water and ice. It was developed for the army, and is far superior to any other climbing rope.

Improperly used, a rope can spread disaster instead of preventing it (see chapters 15—17). It is the climber's lifeline when it is needed, and should be cared for ac­cordingly (see p. 186). Resiliency is essential, and the climber should brush up on the elementary physics affect­ing rope when it is subjected to the various loads that are developed in mountaineering.

Ice ax.—Choice of the varying weights and lengths of ice axes will be determined by the purpose for which the ax is intended. For those who expect to use the ax primarily as a cane—its most frequent and prolonged use —cane length is preferable; that is, about half a person's height. A ski mountaineer or rock-climber may prefer a much shorter length if he intends, most of the time, to carry the ax in his pack. In any event the shaft should be of good hickory and fit the hand well. The pick should be-8 inches long, with teeth on the underside, and the adz and pick of the head should curve so as to coin­cide with an arc that could be drawn by the ax held at arm's length. The steel should be tough enough to hold an edge well, but not so hard as to crystallize easily. Pro­fessional guides scorn a wrist loop, but they, and particu­larly amateurs, run great risk of losing an ax where they need it most. The loop is secured to a ring that slides on the shaft, being stopped above the point by a round-headed screw or a ring on the ferrule. A satisfactory substitute that will not interfere with probing and is readily adjustable is a loop of rawhide tied to the shaft with a Prusik knot (see p. 187). Most rapid wear will be of the point against rock when the ax is used as a cane.

The point should protrude far enough from the ferrule to permit several resharpenings. A one-piece point does not have the resiliency of a point and ferrule. Metal parts should be protected by a thin coat of oil after each use, the stock by frequent thin coats of a good wood preserva­tive. A leather sheath for the head will keep the point out of undesirable places when the ax is carried, but is not necessary.

Crampons.—Fitted well and tied securely to the boots, crampons, properly used with an ice ax, will hold on ex­ceedingly steep ice slopes (80° is claimed!) without re­quiring that steps be cut. It follows that crampons will increase safety in steps on less severe angles. A crampon should be rugged, and the ski mountaineer should beware of rejected army crampons that may be on the market for some time, and that have received the well-deserved nickname of "folding crampons" for their utter lack of necessary sturdiness. Single articulation of the crampon is adequate. The points should be 1- 11/2inches long to permit resharpening—frequently needed if the climber wears them often on rock islands in the ice. The number of points varies from 2 to 19. The 12-point model, which has two points protruding at an angle in front of the foot, is most versatile. A 4-point crampon may serve for the skier who wishes only to wear something on his ski boots for short and infrequent pitches of ice that are not dif­ficult. The binding when wet will tighten if of webbing and stretch if of leather, but leather is easy to tighten again and can be more easily worked at subfreezing temperatures. On any long trip a spare pair of bindings is desirable. Many methods have been devised to simplify adjustment of bindings; whichever is chosen should be so simple that the climber will remove crampons willingly when he comes to short stretches of rock. More im­portant, however, the crampons should be held as snugly to the foot as possible without impeding circulation.

Snowshoes.—Snowshoers claim certain advantages over skiers which are seldom conceded; certainly it is not the intention of this manual to take the side of snowshoers. The bearpaw, however, has a definite function in some types of terrain a ski mountaineer may encounter, such as in an ascent where skis have necessarily been left in a base camp, yet there is deep, soft snow on slopes above. The bearpawer, moreover, can and perhaps must travel as slowly as he ought to for safety; the skier has not always been known to do this. A bearpaw with a light duralumin edge will bite better into crust and hold better on steep slopes than one with a wooden edge. The binding should allow the heel free up-and-down motion.

Rock pitons.—Various types of pitons may be driven into cracks in the rock to provide a secure point on the cliff to which the rope may be hooked through the spring gate of a carabiner (see fig. 3). If the leading climber falls, he may then be held, pulley-wise, by a man below him. Successive pitons are driven as the climber moves upward. There are four basic types for rock, of which horizontals are most frequently used, verticals least, in a ratio of about 5 to 1: (1) vertical for cracks with flush sides, preferably vertical; (2) horizontal for flush or offset cracks, horizontal or vertical; (3) angle for wide, deep cracks, offset or flush, horizontal or vertical; (4) wafer for cracks that are thin, shallow and flush or with flared opening. A good piton will have a solid head to withstand repeated pounding. Rings, if any, should be securely welded. The metal should not be too hard, thus preventing the piton from "biting" well into the rock.

Ice pitons.—There are about as many designs as there are users, most of the designs obviously being the product of little thought. The shaft should be about 1/4X 5/8 X 7—10 inches, with real teeth—not nicks—on the thin­ner sides. These will hold one's weight after the shaft itself has loosened, as it will under pressure or in mild weather and sunshine. The ice piton owes its security to the soundness of the ice into which it is driven and its angle to the ice surface, but particularly to regulation after it has been driven. The smooth, hollow-tubed U.S. Army variety is light in weight, shatters the ice least, and has held a pull of 2,000 pounds parallel to the shaft at temperatures of 10-20° F. But it remains to be seen how well a toothless tube will hold in the field without freezing temperatures to help it. The recently developed ice screw is much superior to the standard designs, de­veloping exceptional holding power parallel to the shaft.

Piton hammer.—Most piton hammers have a point to aid in clearing out piton cracks or chipping ice. The point is sometimes annoying and is unnecessary. An ordinary 16-ounce mechanic's ball-peen hammer is very satis­factory for rock, and fits well, head down, in a rear pocket. A rawhide sling, anchored to a hole in the handle and long enough when around the neck to allow the hammer to be extended at arm's length, will free the hands between pitons and prevent loss of the hammer. A hammer holster is useful.

If there is to be much driving of ice pitons, a fairly long point on the hammer is useful in cutting away un­sound surface ice or in chipping a recess for the piton. A geologist's pick and hammer is excellent. Greater weight—24—32 ounces—is also desired, for ice pitons must be driven much farther than rock pitons, against equal resistance.

Carabiners.—Designs of various types, oval, pear- shaped, D-type, with and without locking screw, have been developed in various steels and in aluminum. Those made for the army, the simple steel oval type with spring gate, will take a load in excess of 2,000 pounds. The aluminum alloy carabiners weigh onlyounces and test from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds, more than adequate strength considering other links in the belaying chain. The gate should open freely, for the climber does not always have two hands to work with when snapping a carabiner into a piton, or the rope into the carabiner.

(Bramani-type sole) ski boot 12-point Grivel-type crampons and binding

Tricount nail pattern using the heel plate, studs, and edge nails1, sponge-rubber heel center. Nail should be spaced to fit crampons and toe Irons

SKI-MOUNTAINEERING FOOTGEAR

ICE-AX NOMENCLATURE R

Fig. 2. Ice-climbing aids for the ski mountaineer.

Good vertical Poor

Good wafer

Wafer in narrow flared crack requiring a ring

Angle piton correct position Carabiner

The right combination (the seven others arc wrong)

Fig. 3. Rock-climber's hardware, showing piton types in place.

It should always be remembered that lists of and notes on equipment are only suggestions. There is plenty of room for both substitution and betterment. As a skier grows in proficiency and experience, one of his greatest joys will be the use of gadgets which he himself has de­veloped. But until an item of equipment has been proved successful by field testing under grueling conditions it is best to consider it as experimental, and not rely on it exclusively.

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